WORD ORDER AND SENTENCE BUILDING

A sentence tells us something about a person or thing. Its subject is the person or thing being discussed, its verb expresses the action or state, and an object is the person or thing directly affected by an action. In a neutral Dari action sentence, the subject normally comes first and the verb comes last. The object and expressions of place or time come between them. This differs from the usual English order, in which the verb comes before its object.

The marker را‏ (raa) follows an identifiable direct object, such as “this book” or a particular person. It is not a general translation of “the,” and it does not belong after every noun. A general activity such as reading books can use an unmarked noun, while reading the particular book uses (raa). Prepositions such as در‏ (dar), “in/at,” به‏ (ba), “to,” and از‏ (az), “from,” come before their noun. In conversational Afghan Dari, (dar) may sound like da and (raa) like ra; the full spellings remain useful for reading.

For the first sentence patterns, learn می‌خوانم‏ (mey-khaanam), “I read,” می‌خورم‏ (mey-khuram), “I eat,” می‌روم‏ (mey-rawam), “I go,” and می‌کنم‏ (mey-kunam), “I do.” With “he/she,” their endings become -ad, and with “we,” -eym. A verb ending identifies its subject, so an obvious subject can be omitted. Dari also allows rearrangement for emphasis, but the neutral patterns below provide a reliable beginning. The short linking sound -e connects a noun with a following description or possessor; it is called ezafe and is developed in Chapters 4 and 6.

Formula reading key: Grammatical labels such as subject, object, verb, noun, adjective, present stem, past stem, personal ending, prefix, and suffix are in English. Each Dari word or affix used in a pattern is followed by its romanization in parentheses.

Dari formula: subject + (time/location) + definite object + را‏ (raa) + verb.

Reading guide: subject + (time/place) + identifiable direct object + را‏ (raa) + verb. Omit را‏ (raa) when the object is general rather than identifiable.

Dari formula for identity or description: subject + noun/adjective + استم‏ (astum), استی‏ (astee), است‏ (ast), استیم‏ (asteym), استید‏ (asteyd), or استند‏ (astand).

Reading guide: subject + noun/adjective + the form of “be” that matches the subject.

Examples:

من نان می‌خورم.‏ (man naan mey-khuram) – I eat bread.

او چای می‌نوشد.‏ (o chaay mey-noshad) – He/She drinks tea.

ما دری می‌خوانیم.‏ (maa daree mey-khaaneym) – We study Dari.

من این کتاب را می‌خوانم.‏ (man een ketaab raa mey-khaanam) – I read this book.

او در کابل کار می‌کند.‏ (o dar kaabul kaar mey-kunad) – He/She works in Kabul.

ما به مکتب می‌رویم.‏ (maa ba maktab mey-raweym) – We go to school.

علی این نان را می‌خورد.‏ (alee een naan raa mey-khurad) – Ali eats this bread.

من از هرات استم.‏ (man az heraat astam) – I am from Herat.

این خانه کلان است.‏ (een khaana kalaan ast) – This house is big.

کتاب اینجا است.‏ (ketaab eenjaa ast) – The book is here.

چای می‌نوشم.‏ (chaay mey-nosham) – I drink tea.

امروز من کار می‌کنم.‏ (emroz man kaar mey-kunam) – Today I work.

MAKING POSITIVE STATEMENTS

A positive statement says that something is true or that an action happens. Dari does not need a separate word equivalent to English “do” in an ordinary positive sentence. A verb already carries its personal ending. The expressions کار کردن‏ (kaar kardan), “to work,” and گپ زدن‏ (gap zadan), “to talk,” have two parts; the first part supplies much of the meaning and the final verb changes its ending. Afghan Dari uses (gap zadan) naturally for everyday talking.

For identity and description, the present forms taught here are (astam) for “I am,” (astee) for familiar “you are,” (ast) for “he/she/it is,” (asteym) for “we are,” (asteyd) for respectful or plural “you are,” and (astand) for “they are.” These Afghan forms are useful for introductions and feelings. The adjective itself does not change to match the person. In an occupation statement, a bare noun such as “teacher” is natural even when English uses “a teacher.”

Dari formula: subject + profession/description + استم‏ (astum), استی‏ (astee), است‏ (ast), استیم‏ (asteym), استید‏ (asteyd), or استند‏ (astand).

Reading guide: subject + occupation/description + matching ast-form.

Examples:

من معلم استم.‏ (man mualem astam) – I am a teacher.

تو شاگرد استی.‏ (too shaagerd astee) – You are a pupil.

او داکتر است.‏ (o daaktar ast) – He/She is a doctor.

ما خوب استیم.‏ (maa khoob asteym) – We are well.

شما مهمان استید.‏ (shumaa mehmaan asteyd) – You are a guest / guests.

آنها خوشحال استند.‏ (aanhaa khushhaal astand) – They are happy.

علی کار می‌کند.‏ (alee kaar mey-kunad) – Ali works.

ما گپ می‌زنیم.‏ (maa gap mey-zaneym) – We talk.

MAKING NEGATIVE STATEMENTS

A negative statement says that an action does not happen or that a description is not true. With ordinary present action verbs, add the negative prefix before (mey-): نمی‌‏ (na-mey-). The subject ending remains in place, and the word order does not invert. With the special possession verb “have,” which normally lacks (mey-), add (na-) directly: دارم‏ (daaram), “I have,” becomes ندارم‏ (na-daaram), “I do not have.” A prefix is a small element attached before the main part of a word.

The present negative of “be” uses نیست‏ (neyst), rather than adding (na-) to (ast). Its forms are (neystam), (neystee), (neyst), (neysteym), (neysteyd), and (neystand). This single pattern negates identity, an adjective, a location, or existence. To say that tea is not hot, negate “is”; do not invent a negative form of “hot.” Similarly, “not a teacher” uses the ordinary word for teacher followed by the correct neyst-form. Neither a separate English-style “not” after the adjective nor an extra “do” is needed.

For later reference, a completed past action takes (na-) before its past form, as in نرفتم‏ (na-raftam), “I did not go.” The formal future places (na-) on the future helper, as in نخواهم رفت‏ (na-khaaham raft), “I will not go.” Commands use a negative command form, taught in Chapter 5. These are separate verb constructions; negation follows the form being used. The word نی‏ (ney) can answer a question with “no,” but it does not replace the negative verb in a complete sentence. With هیچ‌کس‏ (hech-kas), “nobody,” and هیچ‌چیز‏ (hech-cheez), “nothing,” a negative verb is normal Dari agreement with the negative meaning.

Dari formula for a negative present action: subject + other sentence elements + نـ‏ (na-) + می‌‏ (mey-) + present stem + personal ending.

Affixes in writing: نـ‏ (na-) + می‌‏ (mey-) normally appears together as نمی‌‏ (na-mey-); the personal endings are ـم‏ (-am), ـی‏ (-ee), ـد‏ (-ad), ـیم‏ (-eym), ـید‏ (-eyd), and ـند‏ (-and).

Dari formula for a negative description: subject + noun/adjective/location + نیستم‏ (neystum), نیستی‏ (neystee), نیست‏ (neyst), نیستیم‏ (neysteym), نیستید‏ (neysteyd), or نیستند‏ (neystand).

Examples:

من کار نمی‌کنم.‏ (man kaar na-mey-kunam) – I do not work.

تو چای نمی‌نوشی.‏ (too chaay na-mey-noshee) – You do not drink tea.

او نان نمی‌خورد.‏ (o naan na-mey-khurad) – He/She does not eat bread.

ما به مکتب نمی‌رویم.‏ (maa ba maktab na-mey-raweym) – We do not go to school.

شما این کتاب را نمی‌خوانید.‏ (shumaa een ketaab raa na-mey-khaaneyd) – You do not read this book.

آنها گپ نمی‌زنند.‏ (aanhaa gap na-mey-zanand) – They do not talk.

من معلم نیستم.‏ (man mualem neystam) – I am not a teacher.

تو خسته نیستی.‏ (too khasta neystee) – You are not tired.

او در خانه نیست.‏ (o dar khaana neyst) – He/She is not at home.

ما مریض نیستیم.‏ (maa mareez neysteym) – We are not ill.

شما از کابل نیستید.‏ (shumaa az kaabul neysteyd) – You are not from Kabul.

آنها مهمان نیستند.‏ (aanhaa mehmaan neystand) – They are not guests.

چای گرم نیست.‏ (chaay garm neyst) – The tea is not hot.

من پول ندارم.‏ (man pool na-daaram) – I do not have money.

هیچ‌کس اینجا نیست.‏ (hech-kas eenjaa neyst) – Nobody is here.

FORMING QUESTIONS

A question asks the listener to confirm information or supply missing information. Dari usually keeps the statement’s basic word order, so English patterns with an opening “do,” “does,” or inverted “is” should not be translated word for word. A yes/no question can use a questioning tone, while an information question contains a word meaning “who,” “where,” or another specific request for information.

Yes/No Question Formation

A yes/no question can keep the subject, description, and final verb of a statement. In speech, the sentence melody signals the question; in writing, ؟‏ marks its end. The optional opening word آیا‏ (aayaa) makes a yes/no question explicit in careful language. It is useful to recognize, although an everyday conversation often uses the unmarked question pattern.

A negative question retains the negative verb. It may ask for confirmation or express surprise, depending on tone, so beginners can start with a positive question when they simply need information. To answer clearly, use (baley), “yes,” or (ney), “no,” followed by a short positive or negative statement. The respectful pronoun (shumaa) takes its respectful/plural verb ending even when the listener is one person.

Dari formula: آیا‏ (aayaa) + statement word order + ؟‏

Everyday alternative: statement word order + question intonation / ؟‏; آیا‏ (aayaa) may be omitted in conversation.

Examples:

شما معلم استید؟‏ (shumaa mualem asteyd) – Are you a teacher?

تو خوب استی؟‏ (too khoob astee) – Are you well?

او داکتر است؟‏ (o daaktar ast) – Is he/she a doctor?

این کتاب است؟‏ (een ketaab ast) – Is this a book?

آن خانه کلان است؟‏ (aan khaana kalaan ast) – Is that house big?

شما چای می‌نوشید؟‏ (shumaa chaay mey-nosheyd) – Do you drink tea?

او در کابل کار می‌کند؟‏ (o dar kaabul kaar mey-kunad) – Does he/she work in Kabul?

شما پول دارید؟‏ (shumaa pool daareyd) – Do you have money?

آیا این مکتب است؟‏ (aayaa een maktab ast) – Is this a school?

آیا آنها مهمان استند؟‏ (aayaa aanhaa mehmaan astand) – Are they guests?

تو خسته نیستی؟‏ (too khasta neystee) – Are you not tired?

شما این کتاب را نمی‌خوانید؟‏ (shumaa een ketaab raa na-mey-khaaneyd) – Do you not read this book?

Wh-Questions

Information questions specify the missing part of a sentence. کی‏ (kee) asks “who,” چه‏ (che) asks “what,” کجا‏ (kujaa) asks “where,” از کجا‏ (az kujaa) asks “from where,” and چرا‏ (cheraa) asks “why.” کدام‏ (kudaam), “which,” comes before the noun identifying the available choice. For time, چه وقت‏ (che waqt), “when,” is a useful unambiguous beginner form; the spelling کی‏ can also mean “when” in context.

The question word often occupies the position of the information it replaces. A person being identified can appear before “be,” a location can appear before the final verb, and an object question can appear before the action verb. When a particular person is the direct object, (kee) (raa) means “whom.” Questions about a prepositional relationship keep the preposition: (baa) (kee) is “with whom.” Avoid moving the verb to the beginning simply because English does so.

The combination چه است‏ can contract to چیست‏ (cheest), “what is,” and کی است‏ to کیست‏ (keest), “who is.” Both full and contracted forms occur. This is a sound-and-spelling contraction, not a new sentence order. A question asking about identity needs (kee), while one asking about a thing needs (che). The examples introduce these words in the sentence patterns already explained.

Dari formulas: subject + question word/location phrase + verb; کدام‏ (kodaam) + noun; preposition + question word.

Useful written question words: کی، چه، کجا، از کجا، چرا، کدام، و چه وقت.‏

Examples:

این چیست؟‏ (een cheest) – What is this?

او کیست؟‏ (o keest) – Who is he/she?

شما از کجا استید؟‏ (shumaa az kujaa asteyd) – Where are you from?

مکتب کجا است؟‏ (maktab kujaa ast) – Where is the school?

تو چه می‌خوانی؟‏ (too che mey-khaanee) – What do you read?

او چه می‌خورد؟‏ (o che mey-khurad) – What does he/she eat?

شما کجا کار می‌کنید؟‏ (shumaa kujaa kaar mey-kuneyd) – Where do you work?

چرا او خسته است؟‏ (cheraa o khasta ast) – Why is he/she tired?

شما چه وقت کار می‌کنید؟‏ (shumaa che waqt kaar mey-kuneyd) – When do you work?

کدام کتاب را می‌خوانید؟‏ (kudaam ketaab raa mey-khaaneyd) – Which book do you read?

کی اینجا است؟‏ (kee eenjaa ast) – Who is here?

شما با کی گپ می‌زنید؟‏ (shumaa baa kee gap mey-zaneyd) – With whom do you talk?

شما کی را می‌بینید؟‏ (shumaa kee raa mey-beeneyd) – Whom do you see?

How-Questions

A how-question can ask about someone’s condition, the way an action is done, or an amount. چطور‏ (chetor) is common for “how,” while چگونه‏ (chegona) is another form, often useful in more careful expression. For a greeting, (chetor) with a form of “be” asks how the person is. For a journey or activity, the same word asks about the method or manner.

Quantities use چند‏ (chand), “how many/how much,” before a countable noun or in a price question. چقدر‏ (cheqadar) asks about an amount or degree. A counted noun generally stays singular after (chand), just as it does after a number. For age, چند ساله‏ (chand saala) means “how many years old”; for duration, چند ساعت‏ (chand saa'at) means “how many hours.” سال‏ (saal) is “year,” ساعت‏ (saa'at) is “hour,” and قیمت‏ (qeemat) can refer to a price. These question structures are used in the practical time and shopping sections later.

An English question beginning with “how” therefore does not have one fixed Dari translation. The useful distinction is condition or method versus amount or number. Once the correct expression is chosen, the verb stays in its usual position and keeps the ending required by its subject.

Dari formulas: چطور‏ (chetawr) + appropriate form of “to be”; subject + چطور‏ (chetawr)/چگونه‏ (cheguna) + verb; چند‏ (chand) + singular noun + rest of question.

Amount formula: چقدر‏ (cheqadar) + quantity noun + verb.

Examples:

شما چطور استید؟‏ (shumaa chetor asteyd) – How are you?

تو چطور استی؟‏ (too chetor astee) – How are you? (familiar)

مادر شما چطور است؟‏ (maadar-e shumaa chetor ast) – How is your mother?

هوا چطور است؟‏ (hawaa chetor ast) – How is the weather?

شما چطور به مکتب می‌روید؟‏ (shumaa chetor ba maktab mey-raweyd) – How do you go to school?

او چگونه کار می‌کند؟‏ (o chegona kaar mey-kunad) – How does he/she work?

شما چند کتاب دارید؟‏ (shumaa chand ketaab daareyd) – How many books do you have?

او چند برادر دارد؟‏ (o chand beraadar daarad) – How many brothers does he/she have?

شما چند ساله استید؟‏ (shumaa chand saala asteyd) – How old are you?

این چند است؟‏ (een chand ast) – How much is this?

شما چقدر پول دارید؟‏ (shumaa cheqadar pool daareyd) – How much money do you have?

شما چند ساعت کار می‌کنید؟‏ (shumaa chand saa'at kaar mey-kuneyd) – How many hours do you work?

NOUNS: GENDER AND NUMBER

A noun names a person, place, thing, or idea. Dari nouns do not belong to masculine and feminine grammar classes, and ordinary adjectives do not change with a noun’s sex or gender. Different words can identify a man or woman, such as (padar), “father,” and (maadar), “mother,” but both take the same description and verb pattern. The pronoun o can refer to a male or female person; English translations sometimes need to supply “he” or “she.”

The widely useful plural ending is ها‏ (haa), added to a noun. A small joining space can be used in writing, as in کتاب‌ها.‏ Many words for people also have an -aan plural, such as شاگردان‏, “pupils.” Some familiar words have learned Arabic-origin plurals, such as طفل‏, “child,” and اطفال‏, “children.” Treat these as words to recognize, rather than trying to guess an unfamiliar plural from its English meaning.

After a specific number or (chand) in an ordinary counting expression, the noun generally keeps its singular form: “two book,” rather than copying the English plural ending. The quantity already expresses more than one. A plural noun outside such a counting expression can take (haa), and references to several people normally use a plural verb. Inanimate plural subjects can also occur with singular agreement in Dari; use the clear human agreement patterns first rather than imposing a universal rule on every plural thing.

Dari formula for the productive plural: noun + ها‏ (-haa), as in کتاب‏ (ketaab) + ها‏ (-haa) -> کتاب‌ها‏ (ketaab-haa).

Dari formula for people when learned with ـان‏ (-aan): noun + ـان‏ (-aan), as in شاگرد‏ (shaagerd) + ـان‏ (-aan) -> شاگردان‏ (shaagerdaan).

Counting formula: number/چند‏ (chand) + singular noun; the noun normally remains singular after the number.

Examples:

کتاب / کتاب‌ها‏ (ketaab / ketaab-haa) – book / books

خانه / خانه‌ها‏ (khaana / khaana-haa) – house / houses

مکتب / مکتب‌ها‏ (maktab / maktab-haa) – school / schools

موتر / موترها‏ (motar / motar-haa) – car / cars

دوست / دوستان‏ (dost / dostaan) – friend / friends

شاگرد / شاگردان‏ (shaagerd / shaagerdaan) – pupil / pupils

معلم / معلمان‏ (mualem / mualemaan) – teacher / teachers

طفل / اطفال‏ (tefl / atfaal) – child / children; a learned plural

دو کتاب‏ (doo ketaab) – two books

سه خانه‏ (sey khaana) – three houses

چند موتر‏ (chand motar) – how many cars / several cars, depending on context

پدر و مادر‏ (padar wa maadar) – father and mother; lexical sex, not grammatical gender classes

ARTICLES AND DETERMINERS

Determiners help the listener identify which thing or how many things you mean. Dari has no obligatory separate word matching English “the.” Context, a pointing word, or the object marker can make a reference identifiable. یک‏ (yak), literally “one,” can introduce an unspecified singular thing. An unstressed final ی‏, pronounced -ey here, is another indefinite marker. It does not replace the plural ending and is distinct from the spoken ezafe linking vowel.

For A1 use, (yak) before a noun is an especially clear way to say “a/an.” A plain occupation noun after “be” can omit it. این‏ (een), “this,” and آن‏ (aan), “that,” precede the noun; their English equivalents do not require an extra “the.” When the whole noun phrase is an identifiable direct object, (raa) follows the phrase. It is the object’s role in the sentence, not the mere presence of a noun, that makes (raa) relevant.

Dari formulas: یک‏ (yak) + noun; noun + ـی‏ (-ey); این‏ (een)/آن‏ (aan) + noun; definite object phrase + را‏ (raa).

Affix in writing: indefinite -ey is written ـی‏ (-ey), as in کتاب‏ (ketaab) + ـی‏ (-ey) -> کتابی‏ (ketaabey).

Examples:

من یک کتاب دارم.‏ (man yak ketaab daaram) – I have a book.

او یک موتر دارد.‏ (o yak motar daarad) – He/She has a car.

این یک مکتب است.‏ (een yak maktab ast) – This is a school.

او معلم است.‏ (o mualem ast) – He/She is a teacher.

این کتاب خوب است.‏ (een ketaab khoob ast) – This book is good.

آن خانه کلان است.‏ (aan khaana kalaan ast) – That house is big.

من این کتاب را می‌خوانم.‏ (man een ketaab raa mey-khaanam) – I read this book.

کتابی دارم.‏ (ketaab-ey daaram) – I have a book.

چای گرم است.‏ (chaay garm ast) – The tea is hot.

من نان می‌خورم.‏ (man naan mey-khuram) – I eat bread; a general unmarked object.

Cultural Tip: (Maktab) is the ordinary Afghan term used here for school, and (shaagerd) is suitable for a school pupil. A university student is commonly called (muhasel). The distinction helps make introductions more precise.

PRACTICE SECTION

Fill in the Blanks

Complete each interior gap with the form requested in parentheses.

1- من _________ کتاب دارم.‏ (an indefinite determiner meaning “a”)

2- این _________ خوب است.‏ (write the plural of کتاب‏ with haa; singular agreement with a plural thing is possible)

True/False

1- A neutral Dari action sentence commonly puts the verb at the end.

2- Dari adjectives have separate masculine and feminine agreement endings.

Translation

Translate each sentence into Dari.

1- I am a teacher.

2- This house is big.

3- Do you have money?